AKAL TAKHT

(Punjabi: throne of the timeless one), primary seat of Sikh religious authority. The Akal Takht is located at Amritsar (Punjab) in the Darbar Sahib, opposite the Harimandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, the principal Sikh house of worship. Also based there is the headquarters of the Shiromani Akali Dal (Leading Akali Party), predominant among the Sikhs. Similar seats of authority (takhts) are located at Anandpur and Patiala (Punjab), Patna (Bihar), and Nanded (Maharashtra). The Akal Takht was badly damaged during Operation Bluestar in June 1984, when the Indian army routed Sikh separatist militants occupying the Golden Temple.

After he laid the foundation of the Takht, the title of "Guru" was conferred upon Hargobind in 1606. In 1708, when Guru Gobind Singh declared that the line of personal gurus (religious guides) had come to an end, the authority of the office of guru was considered to be embodied in the holy scripture, the Adi Granth (Guru Granth Sahib). Disputes in interpretation had to be settled by the entire Sikh community. Decisions were made at annual or semi-annual meetings in Amritsar (Sabat Khalsa assemblies), when groups would assemble behind their elected leaders in the open area in front of the Akal Takht. Resolutions had to be carried out unanimously; they then became gurumats (decisions of the guru) and were binding on all Sikhs. Both political and religious decisions were taken at Akal Takht meetings up until 1809, when Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the leader of the newly unified Sikh state, abolished political gurumats and began to seek counsel from both Sikhs and non-Sikhs. Since the twentieth century, the resolutions of local congregations on non-political matters relating to the interpretation of Sikh doctrine or rules of conduct can be appealed to the Akal Takht; decisions taken there are conveyed in the form of hukamnamas (orders). A hukamnama issued from the Akal Takht is considered mandatory for all Sikhs.

 

AJIVA

 in Jainism, "non-soul" substance, as opposed to jiva (soul, living substance). Ajiva is divided into: (1) akasha (space), (2) dharma (that which makes motion possible), (3) adharma (that which makes rest possible), and (4) pudgala (matter). Pudgala consists of atoms; is eternal yet subject to change and development; is both gross (that which can be seen) and subtle (that which cannot be perceived by the senses). The first three types of ajiva are necessary conditions for the subsistence of both souls and matter. Some of the above terms are also used in Buddhist philosophy, but with different connotations.  

AHURA MAZDA

(Avestan: Wise Lord), also spelt Hormazd , Ormazd , or Ormizd in Zoroastrianism, the one and only Supreme Creator, Dadaar, who rules the entire universe through his special powers, known as the amesha spenta (beneficent immortals).

It was Zarathushtra, or Zoroaster as the Greeks named him, who selected Mazda from three important deities: Mithra, Mazda, and Nina. He linked Mazda (Wisdom) with the group of deities known as the Ahuras (the Living Ones). In his Gathas (religious texts containing hymns in praise of Wisdom), Zarathushtra asserts that "Ahura Mazda is the one with Truth (Asha)" (Yasna 28.8; 29.7). To explain the origin of Evil in the world, Zarathushtra used the legend of the Mainyu twins, which existed long before his time. These twins were in opposition to each other in thought, word, and deed. Spenta Mainyu, the spirit of benediction, became identified with Ahura Mazda. Angra Mainyu, the hostile spirit, chose to perform the worst deeds and so generated the Druj (the lie) and Aeshma, or Aishma (wrath and bloodlust). Angra Mainyu was later named Ahriman. Mankind was divided into two opposing groups: the Ashavans, the followers of Truth, and the Dregvants, the followers of the Lie. The struggle between these two groups makes up the history of the world. This struggle will only end when Ahura Mazda and his powers fight Ahriman and his brood of evil in a mighty battle at the end of time, which will then cease. The sun will stand at high noon. There will be "neither hot wind nor cold wind" but an eternal spring will prevail. Mankind will be clothed in beautiful bodies and look forever young and handsome. There will be no sex, but all will live in amity as one happy family.

AHMADIYAH

 modern Islamic sect and the generic name for various Sufi (Muslim mystic) orders. The sect was founded in Qadian, the Punjab in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (c. 1839--1908), who claimed to be the mahdi (a figure expected by some Muslims at the end of the world), the Christian Messiah, an incarnation of the Hindu god Krishna, and a reappearance ( buruz ) of Muhammad. The sect's doctrine, in some aspects, is unorthodox: for example, it is believed that Jesus feigned death and resurrection, but in actuality escaped to India, where he died at the age of 120; also, jihad (holy war) is reinterpreted as a battle against unbelievers to be waged by peaceful methods rather than by violent military means.  

On the death of the founder, Mawlawi Nur-ad-Din was elected by the community as khalifah (successor). In 1914, when he died, the Ahmadiyah split, the original, Qadiani, group recognizing Ghulam Ahmad as prophet ( nabi ) and his son Hadrat Mirza Bashir-ad-Din Mahmud Ahmad (b. 1889) as the second caliph, the new Lahore society accepting Ghulam Ahmad only as a reformer ( mujaddid ).

The Qadianis, residing chiefly in Pakistan (though there are communities in India and west Africa and to some extent in Great Britain, Europe, and the United States), are a highly -organized community with a considerable -financial base. They are zealous missionaries, preaching Ahmadi beliefs as the one true Islam, with Muhammad and Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as prophets. In 1947, with the establishment of Pakistan, they officially relocated from Qadian to Rabwah, Pakistan.

Ahmadiyah also designated several Sufi orders, the most important of which is in Egypt named after Ahmad al-Badawi, one of the greatest saints of Islam (d. 1276). Al-Badawi achieved great fame for his knowledge of Islamic sciences, but he eventually abandoned speculative theology and devoted himself to contemplation in seclusion. He became known as a miracle-working saint, and had thousands of followers called Sutuhiyah, from ashab as-sath (people of the roof).

ADHAN

 (Arabic: announcement), the Muslim call to Friday public worship and to the five daily hours of prayer. The muezzin, a servant of the mosque chosen for good character, makes the proclamation from the door or side of a small mosque, or from the minaret of a large one. The standard Sunni adhan can be translated as: "Allah is greatest. I testify that there is no god but Allah. I testify that Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah. Come to prayer. Come to salvation. Allah is greatest. There is no god but Allah." The first phrase is proclaimed four times, the final phrase once, and the others twice.  

ABHISHEKA

 (Sanskrit: affusion). An integral part of the ancient Indian royal crowning ceremony, abhisheka was the custom where water from the four oceans was poured out of golden jars onto the head of the seated monarch during his accession ceremony and also during the investiture ceremony of his heir apparent.

In Tantric or esoteric Buddhism, abhisheka is a purificatory or initiatory rite in which a candidate is sprinkled with water or other liquid, signifying a change in status. The abhisheka is a necessary prelude to initiation into mystical teaching or rites.