(b. Oct. 15, 1542, Umarkot, Sind; d. 1605, Agra), in full Abu-ul-Fath Jalal-ud-din -Muhammad Akbar , astute and progressive ruler, renowned for his broadmindedness and religious tolerance. Considered to be the greatest ever Mughal emperor to rule India (reign 1556-1605), he extended Mughal power over almost the entire Indian subcontinent. Akbar adopted programmes that won the loyalty of even the non-Muslim population and preserved the unity of his empire. He reformed and strengthened his central administration, centralized his financial system, and reorganized the tax collection processes. Although he never renounced Islam, he took an active interest in other religions. Despite being illiterate himself, he encouraged scholars, poets, painters, and musicians, making his court a centre of culture.
Early life
Akbar descended from the Turks, Mongols, and Iranians - the three politically -predominant races of northern India in medieval times. His ancestors included Timur (Tamerlane) and Genghis Khan. His father, Humayun, was ousted from power by the Afghan usurper Sher Shah Sur. Humayun left for Afghanistan and Iran, to get reinforcements from the Shah. He regained his throne only in 1555, 10 years after Sher Shah Sur's death and Akbar, at the age of 13, was made governor of the Punjab.
Humayun had barely established his authority when he died, in 1556. This led to chaos and within months his governors lost several important places, including Delhi, to Hemu, a Hindu minister who claimed the throne for himself. But a Mughal force (under Bayram Khan, Akbar's guardian) defeated Hemu on the historical battlefield of Panipat and reestablished the Mughal empire. This ensured Akbar's succession.
At Akbar's accession, his rule extended over to present-day Kabul, Kandahar, and parts of the Punjab and Delhi. It was under the guidance of his chief minister, Bayram Khan, that his authority was gradually consolidated and extended. The process continued after Akbar forced Bayram Khan to retire in 1560 and began to govern on his own - initially under household influences but soon as an absolute monarch.
Imperial expansion
Akbar's first conquest, in 1561, was Malwa, a state of strategic and economic importance. It commanded the route through the -Vindhya hills to the Deccan and contained rich agricultural land. A farsighted administrator, Akbar adopted a policy of compensation and conquest towards the independent Hindu Rajputs, a military race that inhabited the rugged, hilly region of Rajasthan. In 1562, to escape a succession dispute, Raja Bihari Mal of Amber (Jaipur) offered his daughter in marriage to Akbar. On Akbar's acceptance, the raja acknowledged Akbar's suzerainty.
In compensation the raja's sons prospered in Akbar's service. Akbar followed the same feudal policy towards the other Rajput chiefs. They were allowed to hold their ancestral territories, as long as they acknowledged Akbar as emperor, paid tribute, supplied troops when required, and concluded a marriage alliance with him. The emperor's service was also opened to them and their sons, offering rewards both in honour and in money.
Akbar, however, showed no mercy to those who refused to acknowledge his supremacy. On capturing the historic fortress of Chittor (now Chittaurgarh) in 1568 after prolonged fighting in Mewar, he massacred all its inhabitants. The fall of Chittor prompted other Rajput kings to accept Akbar as emperor in 1570 and to conclude marriage alliances with him, although the state of Marwar held out until 1583.
One of the important features of Akbar's government was the extent of Hindu, and particularly Rajput, participation. Rajput princes attained the highest ranks, as generals and as provincial governors, in the Mughal service. Discrimination against non-Muslims was reduced by abolishing the taxation of pilgrims and the tax payable by non-Muslims in lieu of military service. Allowing the Hindu territories to retain a large amount of autonomy ensured maximum cooperation of Hindus at all levels of Akbar's administration. In 1573, Akbar conquered Gujarat, with its numerous ports that dominated India's trade with western Asia. He then turned east towards Bengal, a culturally rich state but difficult to rule from Delhi because of its network of flood-prone rivers. After facing stiff opposition from its Afghan ruler, Akbar ultimately annexed Bengal in 1576.
Towards the end of his reign, Akbar embarked on a fresh round of conquests. Kashmir was subjugated in 1586, Sind in 1591, and Kandahar (Qandahar) in 1595. Mughal troops then moved south of the Vindhya mountains into the Deccan in peninsular India. By 1601 Khandesh, Berar, and part of Ahamadnagar were added to Akbar's empire. His last years were troubled by the rebellious behaviour of his son, Prince Salim, who was eager for power.
Administrative reform
Akbar instituted comprehensive reforms. Previous Indian governments had been weakened by the tendency of armies to split up into the private forces of individual commanders and the tendency of provincial governors to become hereditary local rulers. Akbar initiated the Mansabdari system (1577) that put every official of the state on the army rolls, irrespective of his duties. Akbar's reforms instituted two fundamental changes in the army. First, every officer was appointed and promoted by the emperor, instead of his immediate superior. Second, civil administrators were assigned military ranks, thus becoming as dependent on the emperor as the army officers.
These ranks were systematically graded from commanders of 10 to commanders of 5,000 with higher ranks being allotted to Mughal princes. Officers were paid either in cash from the emperor's treasury or, more frequently, by the assignment of lands from which they had to collect the revenue; they retained only the amount of their salary and remitted the balance to the treasury. Such lands were transferred frequently from one officer to another thereby increasing the officers' dependence on the emperor. Yet, on the other hand, it may also have encouraged them to squeeze as much as they could from the peasants. Akbar had instituted a more efficient system for revenue assessment and collection in trying to safeguard the peasants from such excessive demands and the state from losing money. But this could only be enforced in areas that were directly administered by the central government. It excluded lands under tributary rulers such as the Rajputs and also the lands assigned for the maintenance of Mughal officers. Politically, the greatest merit of the system was that it enabled the emperor to offer attractive careers to those who were able, ambitious, and influential. Akbar could thus enlist the loyal services of many Rajput princes.
Akbar's reforms required a centralized financial system, so to assist each provincial governor ( subedar , later called nawab), a civil administrator ( diwan ) was appointed who supervised revenue collection, prepared accounts, and reported directly to the emperor. Akbar reorganized the existing network of news writers, whose duty was to send regular reports of important events to the emperor.
Yet, notwithstanding Akbar's reforms, the Indian peasants remained impoverished. The official elite, on the other hand, enjoyed great wealth. Liberal patronage was given to painters, poets, musicians, and scholars, and luxury industries flourished. Akbar also supported state workshops for the production of high-quality textiles and ornaments.
Personality and assessment
Akbar maintained a luxurious and brilliant court, with elaborate ceremonials. Every morning he stood at an open window to be seen and revered by the people. Foreign observers commented on the graceful manner in which he accepted little gifts from the people and showed himself ready to hear the complaint of any man who dared to approach him.
Physically, he was strong and could withstand hardship on campaigns. Although he was supposed to have been only five feet seven inches tall, he impressed observers as a dominating personality. He had a powerful and original mind although he was illiterate. His unprejudiced inquiries into Christian doctrines misled the Jesuit missionaries into thinking that he was on the point of conversion. Akbar was religiously tolerant and introduced many reforms to create harmony between Hindus and Muslims. He tried to be an arbiter on points of Islamic law where there were disputes. This offended the orthodox Muslims. They were further offended by the religious discussions he encouraged between Muslims, Hindus, Parsis, and Christians. Their doctrines and ceremonies were known as the Divine Faith (Din-e Ilahi), which assigned a central place to Akbar himself.
In 1570, Akbar started building the capital of Fatehpur Sikri, but it was abandoned in 1586. Fatehpur Sikri was unique in its combination of Hindu and Muslim architectural styles symbolizing the contact of cultures that he encouraged. Similarly, he commissioned the translation of Sanskrit classics into Persian, giving illustrated copies to his courtiers. He also received with enthusiasm the European pictures brought by the Jesuits. His painters incorporated European techniques of realism and perspective in the distinctive Mughal style that had begun to develop during his reign.
Akbar's reign has often been portrayed as a model for future governments - strong, benevolent, tolerant, and enlightened. Akbar understood that for an effective government in such a geographically vast and socially complex country as India, a wide measure of social support was necessary and he satisfied this need.
